Approach to the study of journalism of war (The spanish-american conflict)

Aproximación al estudio del periodismo de guerra (el conflicto hispano-americano)

ABSTRACT

The origin of war journalism has been a consequence of the own evolution in the way of thinking of the humanity to be able to show decisive moments in the advance of a population, a country, a continent or the world (Seib, 2002). The objective we want to emphasize includes some aspects of this so important figure, as well as point out some journalists who have been relevant, stressing the case of the Maine and the Spanish-American conflict, because journalism of war is a double-edged sword, sometimes infected with "yellow press". Besides, we superficially show various recent statistics that indicate the difficulty for these professionals to carry out their work, with special attention to Spanish journalists.

Keywords: war correspondent, yellow press, conflict, Cuba, Maine.

RESUMEN

La aparición del denominado periodismo de guerra ha sido consecuencia de la propia evolución de la mentalidad de la humanidad para poder mostrar situaciones decisivas en el curso de una población, un país, un continente o el mismo globo (Seib, 2002). El objetivo que pretendemos es resaltar algunas facetas de esta figura tan importante, así como reseñar enumerar periodistas que han pasado a la posteridad, haciendo hincapié en el caso del Maine y el conflicto Hispano-Americano, pues el periodismo de guerra es un arma de doble filo, a veces muy imbuida por la "prensa amarilla". Además, mostramos someramente varias estadísticas recientes que indican la dificultad de actuación de estos profesionales, con especial atención a periodistas españoles.

Palabras clave: corresponsal de guerra, prensa amarilla, conflicto, Cuba, Maine.

1. Concept

A war correspondent is a journalist who covers information in a risky place, usually because of a serious conflict or a war. Although they are in safe places and according to worldwide treaties they must not be attacked, many times this isn´t carried out and they can be wounded, kidnapped or murdered. Military troops (such as Blue Berets) are in charge of watching over their security all the time. Though we know the main work of them is to be in first line, also they can be far from there performing other functions.

In the past we can find clearly-defined precedents of reports of war, with important people like Jenofonte or Julius Caesar, always giving their own nuance. The relationship between war and journalism is very intense, so propaganda is another method to get the objectives. During the Spanish-American conflict of 1898, William Randolph Hearst had information because of one of his war correspondents in La Havana; he was decisive in the opinion of the United States citizens and the rest of the world (Rodríguez, 1998).

Important people like Winston Churchill, Frank Cappa, Ernest Hemingway, Saint-Exupéry, Edward R. Murrow, Dan Rather or Al Gore were war correspondents in the beginnings of their careers, covering the conflict with the Boers, the Spanish Civil War, the World War II or the Vietnam War. Not only men, but also women worked; for example Kathleen Blake (http://historiasigloxx.suite101.net/article.cfm/reporteras_de_guerra), Christiane Amanpour and Lara Logan.

2. War correspondents and the Spanish case

Pedro Antonio de Alarcón had gone to Africa in 1859 in order to cover the Spanish-Moroccan conflict with his chronicles, writing Diario de un testigo de la Guerra de África; this is the first event in Spanish journalism where we can talk about war correspondents (http://www.nodo50.org/tortuga/Pedro-Antonio-de-Alarcon-el-primer). Alarcón, journalist and soldier, was attached to the press office of O´Donnell. He was a relevant witness and managed to harmonize truthfulness with aesthetics like a perfect novelist.

The most recent root of this kind of journalism started parallel to the invention of the cinematograph, witness to the War of Cuba (1898) between Spain and the USA (VVAA, 1997). The influence of this media was vital for the future opinion of the world. William Randolph Hearst (Leguineche, 1998), an important magnate of the American press ordered one of his correspondents who were in La Havana to cover the conflict. In this way, the war press was used in a political way against Spain, distorting all the truth and helping the USA to blame Spain for the explosion in the Maine, that´s to say, when this journalism is focused as a weapon (false information), is worse than the others (Vulliamy, 1999). Thanks to "yellow press" and the USA, Spain lost Cuba, Filipinas, Puerto Rico and the Guam Isle, and in an indirect way, the Caroline and the Marianas Isles, and Palaos.

The Spanish-American War was consequence of an uncontrollable clamour of the public opinion in the USA, conquering the resistance of the least popular and more rational circles of the finances and the politics (Marimón, 1998).

"Crossing the Ganges into Oude (1858)"

W. H. Russell (My Diary in India, 1860) This is one of the most important precedents of graphic journalism.

This environment was created and stimulated by the press. The newspapers of New York were decisive, because the rest of the papers followed the guideline of Associated Press (Emery and Edwin, 1992). The main opposition to Spain was captured by means of "The World" of Pulitzer and "The Journal" of Hearst (Leguineche, 1998), exciting the population and forcing the president to getting involved in Cuba. Their sensationalism and these new journalistic techniques provided them an important influence, higher than the rest of newspapers except "The Sun", where Martí had written articles supporting Cuba (Laín and Seco, 1998).

On the other hand we can mention papers that advised against the war, such as financial ones ("Commercial Advertise", "Journal of Commerce") and independent newspapers ("Herald", "Tribune", "The Times", "Evening Post"). Meanwhile, Pulitzer and Hearst took advantage of this situation. So the North-American press was also divided in two attitudes, support or reject the official version; these argued the important reforms started by Spain in Cuba. Consequently three lines of opinion came up in the USA: the atrocities attributed to Spanish (rarely to the rebels); the "black legend" related with the actuation of Spain and the political and economical weakness of the Spanish Empire. Also there was a relevant Protestant campaign against Catholicism (Laín and Seco, 1998).

Since the beginning of the Cuban insurrection, the "yellow press" severely condemned the resistance of President Cleveland to intervene next to the rebels, whereas conservative press supported him. This situation continued with President McKinley, who tried to do the same since 1896. However the influence of "yellow press" got to the Congress that wanted to force mediation between Spain and Cuba with the independence within a short period of time. This interference was unacceptable for Spain (Navarro, 1998). The opinion of an intervention increased, especially after comparing the Navies (Martínez Pérez et al, 2008).

The Maine Explosion ("The World", 1898)

Almost everyone thought Spain would be obliged to negotiate in a political way. In our country there were internal difficulties that threaten the dynasty and the government (Elorza and Hernández, 1998). Even some Spanish conservative newspapers predicted that Spain would prefer fight against the USA and be divested of its isle by the force before a pacifically renouncement to its sovereignty, Spain had to die with its boots on. In contrast with them, the rest of the Spanish press with its ignorance of the situation (Cervera, 1998). European press (except the United Kingdom) supported Spain, argued that we had a clearly military and moral superiority (http://www.domingodelpino.com/index.php?id=75; Núñez, 1997), a traditional power against a new country without a definite race, history and culture.

The original plan of Weyler was deciding for the American rejection. The illustrations of Remington in "The Journal" and new techniques such as photographs and interviews put on a war footing the Congress, now the USA had to rescue Cuba "by humanitarian reasons", the typical argument. Spain started handing over with some policies (Pan-Montojo, 1998). The USA began a helping program to Cuban-Americans. The "yellow press" pandered to the public's appetite for gore, this Spanish concession was very important, the rebels clutched at straws to follow with their cause. The press didn´t know how many negotiations had to do McKinley and Woodford (the American Minister in Madrid) in order to persuade the government of Sagasta to reach a political solution; they didn´t talk openly about independence of Cuba. In 1898, after the disturbs occurred in La Habana in January the USA sent the warship Maine in an attempt of protecting the North-American citizens in Cuba against the Spanish reactionaries (Moreno, 1995).

While the conservative press praised the Spanish welcome, "The Journal" published a letter written by the Spanish Minister in Washington (Dupuy de Lome) to President Canalejas where described the supposed Cuban autonomy like a provisional trick and made a disdainful description of McKinley (Leguineche, 1998). Six days after this publication the Maine exploded in the bay of La Havana. The first investigation didn´t established the cause of the detonation, the spark of the conflict had started. Gradually all the papers were contaminated by "The World" and by "The Journal"; the "Evening Post" bet on a diplomatic option. The daily circulation of the newspapers was enormous, even in foreigner countries. In April the war was stated by means of a blockade, and Spain officially declared the war the 21st of April 1898. Next month the USA was a worldwide power de facto after its victory in Cavite.

The press got more successes trying to discover the whereabouts of the fleet commanded by Admiral Cervera (Cervera, 1998), that outwit the enemy and arrived Santiago de Cuba. The campaign by land wasn´t so "easy", in the battles of Guasimas, El Caney and San Juan (Alonso, 1998), the USA had real problems with the experienced and veteran Spanish Army. The errors of American were criticized also by the "yellow press", but Theodore Roosevelt caught the attention of journalists with his rough riders. The Peace Treaty signed in Paris on December of that year gave the reason to the original position to the "yellow press" (González, 1998). The case of The Philippines was treated in a contemptible way, similar to Cuba; Spain had fallen, now the world had to know that the USA was a power capable of humiliate the greater Spanish Empire. Nowadays we know Spain had fought right to the end in a conflict that hadn´t schemed. Even so, Honour and Dignity will remain next to the Spanish Army.

Though the press is usually politicized by each side; sometimes correspondents couldn´t access the conflict, since both factions were committing lots of crimes; this happened during the World War II, especially in Germany and the USA.

In Spain, during the Civil War occurred the same, according to Rafael Yanes Mesa:

"The 19th of July 1936, one day after having begun the war, the previous censorship is declared in the zone controlled by the republic, and nine days later the revolted side does the same thing. Immediately, newspapers considered like hostile are stopped in both areas and seized. In the republican place, the political parties and unions get hold of different newspapers in a useful war for the propaganda".

But, in spite of these difficulties, they could do their work, though exposing their lives. Important people like George Orwell or Ernest Hemingway were in Spain.

3. Other recent conflicts along the world

The development in technologies was essential during the World War II, so, we have plenty of graphic documents about this conflict; without these films, writings and photos, many criminals could have "come out smelling like a rose". Every advances in technology are at service of war correspondents (http://www.clarin.com/diario/2002/02/13/s-346425.htm). The first war watched on TV was Vietnam War. Until 1968, the pictures that appeared were provided by The Pentagon and edited by the NBC and the CBS. The popularity of this war went down considerably in the USA drawing on the time. The problem of the correspondent´s safety, which was evident in the War of Korea, appeared again in the 70´s, after disappearing more than twenty journalists in Indochina and Camboya. During the War of the Malvinas, correspondents had to stand humiliating situations; the magnates of the main press in both countries were controlling what was going to be published, the rest was hidden, though this policy failed. When the USA invaded Granada in 1983, during five days there wasn´t any press that could inform, only some students that transmitted news by means of a radio. War correspondents were restricted during the First Gulf War, all the news had to be filtered by The Pentagon; completely different in the Second Gulf War, where almost every correspondent were doing their work next to the troops, what supposed more loses than before.

Recently, apart from the War of Iraq (the Second Gulf War), we have lived more conflicts in Africa, America, Oceania and Asia, such as Afghanistan, where the solution is far different from nowadays. The deaths are increasing continuously. In Africa the case of Rwanda had a tremendously repercussion in the international community. In Europe we can´t forget the War of Yugoslavia, in the 90´s (Gilboa, 2002). It involved specially the countries of the UE, equally with the conflict of Kosovo (as a consequence of it). There are interminable problems in the Far and the Middle East, in the whole Africa, in Timor, The Philippines, Laos, Colombia, Russia, Somalia (Rather, 1995), Mexico, etc. Spain has sent many troops and correspondents to the whole conflicts, wars and other problems around the world. 2006 has been one of the worst years for the press, with 81 correspondents killed from a total of 155 journalists murdered, that´s to say, the other 74 people were assistants, security personal or translators, almost everybody in Afghanistan and Iraq. It´s only comparable with the year 1994, when 103 correspondents were killed in Rwanda, Algeria and Yugoslavia. In Haiti, The Philippines, Sierra Leona (www.uao.es/conoce-la-universitat/sala-de-prensa/noticias/2008/el-testimonio-del-corresponsal-de-guerra-miguel-gil-en-la-uao), Lebanon and Russia, the situation is worrying. The kidnappings are more common nowadays, with fifty people per year approximately; one example is the Spanish photographer José Cendón, released this year in Somalia. The actual most risky place is Mexico, where drug trafficking predominates as the main law.

4. The statute of the war correspondent

The job of the journalists who cover informative functions in conflictive areas carries the unavoidable risk of being employed at these circumstances (Steele, 1999); nevertheless, this can´t be a pretext in order that headquarters don´t extreme the suitable resources to endow these informers to the greatest safety that can facilitate to them (Gilboa, 2002). Recently, the increasing comfort of the working conditions has stimulated that many of these professionals go to these stages with few elementary safeties for their physical integrity and their work relationships (http://www.fesp.org/docs/estatutoCorresponsalGuerra.pdf).

The first ones can´t limit to the protection of the physical integrity of the reporter in the zone, but also the resources must be foreseen for the repair of the damages that could be suffered during the task and the sequels that can be developed. And, in the second place, it´s vital that the companies assume a greater commitment with their correspondents located in areas with conflicts, but independently and without replacing the legal normative and the laws of this sector that regulate the work relationships of these professionals (Steele, 1999).

That´s why the "I Encuentro de Periodistas del Mediterráneo Almería 2005", being based on the recommendations of the FIP and with company agreements from our environment recommends to syndical organizations and to mass-media this Statute of the War Correspondent. Firstly, when the information is covered about a war, a warlike conflict or a risky situation, the most important thing for the journalistic company must be the personal safety of the correspondent. They have to safeguard it above all.

In any situation of war or similar conflict the correspondent will be in charge of taking the convenient decisions; in terms of doing the informative coverage and regarding his personal safety. However, the headquarters has the rights and the obligation to manage these safety recommendations in order to be more effective. These mustn´t force the correspondent to stay in a risky zone more than four consecutive weeks and have to relieve the war correspondent according to this conditions that appear in this statute when he or she wants and will extreme the sources to make effective this relief as soon as possible. It is clear that the security or the war correspondent is the most important objective and the journalists have to be provided of all kind of measures to make this a reality.

Any correspondent must belong to the usual structure of the company and have the social coverage planned by the law of the country where the company is situated. In numerous countries it is difficult, so in exceptional cases and for important reasons, the headquarters will be able to contract a collaborator who is already in a risky zone (Jake and McGoldrick, 2005). From that moment, this provisional correspondent will have the same work guarantees of an editor of the company. This condition will be kept during the whole period of his mission for this media; the end of this contract will have to be in paper.

In special situations, if the provisional correspondent in the risky zone was ill during the development of his functions, the conditions of the contract will be kept in a complete way until his total recovery of the illness. The publishing house must guarantee that in case of death, permanent or complete disability, the correspondent or his legal inheritors will receive an indemnification not lower than 300,000 Euros. This quantity, considered on December of 2005, will be increased every year with the same percentage of rise of the ordinary and fixed salary that is applied for the rest of workers. This guarantee must include the provisional correspondents contracted by the headquarters in the risky zone. Also the publishing house will endow the correspondent with means and resources for his personal safety, such as a bulletproof vest, a hull, a first aid kit prepared by medical services, etc.; a phone followed by satellite or the most useful mean to communicate and the suitable resources to work with guarantees. The correspondent will develop a specializing training when the kind of conflict demands it.

The publishing house must run out all the resources always in order to know the place where the correspondents are, their movements and the schedules for their arrival to the original base. The company will appoint a responsible executive who will coordinate the guards, that´s to say, there will be a person in charge of control the correspondent at any time.

5. A Spanish war correspondent

Arturo Pérez-Reverte Gutiérrez (1951). He is a Spanish novelist and journalist who worked as a war correspondent for twenty-one years (1973 – 1994), firstly in the "Diario Pueblo" and then, in RTVE (www.escuelai.com/spanish_culture/literatura/perezreverte-biografia.html). He has experience in Politics also. In 1977 together with his mate Vicente Talón, founded Defense magazine. He was the editor until his commitments as a correspondent forced him to leave the publication.

He left the TV because of the lack of means and the politicization of it. As a war correspondent, he covered conflicts in Cyprus, Lebanon, Eritrea, the Sahara (* look at the picture), the Malvinas, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Chad, Lybia, Sudan, Mozambique, Angola, the First Gulf War and, in a special way, the War in Yugoslavia. But his most intense experience was during the War of Eritrea, in which he was missing months and months, and he managed to survive thanks to his friends of the guerrilla. He had to shoot in order to shelter from the enemy. He joined the Royal Spanish Academy on the 12th of June 2003, occupying the armchair T, vacant from the death of Manuel Alvar, in 2001 (http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arturo_P%C3%A9rez-Reverte).

6. Spanish correspondents killed from 1980

7th March 2004

Ricardo Ortega, correspondent for "Antena 3 television", was killed after being shot in Haiti.

7th and 8th April 2003

Julio Anguita Parrado and José Couso were murdered in Iraq. The first was correspondent for the magazine "El Mundo", and the other, a cameraman of "Telecinco television".

19th November 2001

Julio Fuentes was assassinated next to other journalists when they went to Kabul from Jalalabad. He was a correspondent for the magazine "El Mundo".

24th May 2000

Miguel Gil Moreno was killed by rebels in Sierra Leona. He worked for "Associated Press" (AP).

18th January 1997

Luis Valtueña was murdered in Rwanda next to other two Spanish aid workers while they were working as volunteers in the NGO "Médicos del Mundo". He was a photographer of the "Cover Agency".

17th May 1992

Jordi Pujol Puente was assassinated in Sarajevo during the War of Yugoslavia. He was a photographer for the magazine "Avui".

22nd December 1989

Juan Antonio Rodríguez was killed in Panamá. He was a photographer for the magazine "El País".

22nd March 1980

Luis Espinal was tortured and finally assassinated in La Paz (Bolivia) by paramilitaries. He was a priest and a journalist.

7. Some global statistics

+ A summary (2004 – 2006)

+ Years with more deaths and numbers (until 2007)

Nowadays almost 1000 journalists per year are arrested and more than a thousand are physically attacked or threatened. In addition to this, hundreds of media outlets are censored and a new figure has appeared the cyber-dissident.

+ Journalists killed (2003 – 2007)

+ Statistics referred to 2007

8. Bibliography

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– ELORZA, A. y HERNÁNDEZ, E. La Guerra de Cuba (1895 – 1898). Historia, Alianza Editorial, Madrid, 1998.

– EMERY, M. y EDWIN, E. The Press and America: An Interpretative History of the Mass Media. Ed. Prentice Hall, Nueva Jersey, 1992.

– GILBOA, E. The Global News Network and U.S. Policymaking in Defense and Foreign Affairs, en The Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy, nº 6, pp. 1-33, 2002.

– GIRARDET, E. (Ed.) Somalia, Rwanda, and beyond: The role of the international media in wars and humanitarian crises. Crosslines Global Report, Geneva, 1995.

– GONZÁLEZ, J. M. Cuba. Colonización, independencia y revolución. Acento Editorial, Madrid, 1998.

– http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arturo_P%C3%A9rez-Reverte.

– http://historiasigloxx.suite101.net/article.cfm/reporteras_de_guerra.

– http://www.clarin.com/diario/2002/02/13/s-346425.htm.

– http://www.domingodelpino.com/index.php?id=75.

– http://www.escuelai.com/spanish_culture/literatura/perezreverte-biografia.html.

– http://www.fesp.org/docs/estatutoCorresponsalGuerra.pdf.

– http://www.nodo50.org/tortuga/Pedro-Antonio-de-Alarcon-el-primer.

– http://www.uao.es/conoce-la-universitat/sala-de-prensa/noticias/2008/el-testimonio-del-corresponsal-de-guerra-miguel-gil-en-la-uao.

– LAÍN, P. y SECO, C. (Eds.) España en 1898. Las claves del Desastre. Ed. Galaxia Gutenberg, Círculo de Lectores, Barcelona, 1998.

– LEGUINECHE, M. Yo pondré la guerra. W. R. Hearst. Ed. Aguilar, Madrid, 1998.

– JAKE, L. y MCGOLDRICK, A. Peace Journalism. Hawthorn Press, Gloustershire, 2005.

– MARIMÓN, A. La crisis del 98. Ed. Ariel, Barcelona, 1998.

– MARTÍNEZ PÉREZ, J. Á. (Coord.) Aspectos militares de la historia de Ceuta. Centro de Historia y Cultura Militar, Ceuta, 2008.

– MORENO, M. Cuba-España, España-Cuba. Ed. Crítica, Barcelona, 1995.

– NAVARRO, L. Las guerras de España en Cuba. Ed. Encuentro, Madrid, 1998.

– NÚÑEZ, R. El Ejército español en el Desastre de 1898. Ed. Arco/Libros, Madrid, 1997.

– PAN-MONTOJO, J. (Coord.) Más se perdió en Cuba. Alianza Editorial, Madrid, 1998.

– RODRÍGUEZ, A. R. La guerra del 98. Ed. Agualarga, Madrid, 1998.

– SEIB, P. The global journalist: News and conscience in a world of conflict. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, 2002.

– STEELE, J. El papel del corresponsal de guerra, en Papeles de cuestiones internacionales, nº 66, pp. 87-96, 1999.

– VULLIAMY, E. "Neutrality" and the absence of reckoning: A journalist"s account, en Journal of International Affairs, nº 52, pp. 603-620, 1999.

– VVAA. Memoria del 98. De la guerra de Cuba a la Semana Trágica. El País, Madrid, 1997.

Autor:

José Manuel Martínez Pérez

Licenciado en Veterinaria. Departamento de Sanidad Animal – Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-ULE, León).

Jesús Ángel Martínez Pérez

Doctor en Historia. Universidad de León.