[108] “humans are the only animals that suffer from hip fractures in bones weakened by osteoporosis, which stem from our unusual compulsion to move about on two legs […] If bipedalism doesn´t offer immediate physical advantage, maybe the answer to its evolution and persistence is some social social advantage”
[109] “…bipedalism could well have been an important catalyst in a novel hominid breeding and survival strategy that incorporated parenting skills, tool use, and other behavior that encouraged brain grown […] Because a big brain needs elaborated programming, at some point hominids must have delayed the maturation of their young after birth just like modern humans do”
[110] “humans are strange for several reasons. We have a huge brain, part of our evolutionary heritage of the past 2 million years or so, and this brain is an important sex organ that governs most of learned sexual behavior”
[111] “…the archaeological evidence suggests that habitual hunting did not begin until late in human evolution, perhaps not until after the appearance of modern humans ”
[112] “fire is a profoundly social experience and was probably an important part of later hominid life at Swartkrans […] There is a close association between fire and the increased need for protection when the caves were used as a living area”
[113] “if language really was a late occurrence in human evolution, then it represents only one by-product of a big brain and could not by itself have been the driving force behind expanding brain size. The dramatic spurt in brain grown that would later distinguish Homo sapiens from Homo erectus ”
[114] “In fact, much of what makes us human in the end –language, culture, social organization- may stem from this unnaturally long period of helplessness in the early part of our lives”
[115] “Culture and symbolic language are central in distinguishing modern humans. We comunícate symbolically through language and has become dependent on culture for survival”
[116] “the modern human is undoubtedly a very special type of animal. Speech, unparalleled behavioural flexibility, a peculiar upright stance, a brain far too big for comfort, and a complex technology all cry out as the markers of human uniqueness”
[117] “culture is a concept central to anthropology, epitomizing much of what we think of as distinctly, or uniquely human […] The capacity for culture may be species specific and genetically endowed”
[118] “what makes us humans is culture”
[119] “Man the culture-bearing animal can replace and embrace all aspects of humanity, from technology to politics to aesthetics”
[120] “… their upright posture, their intense sociality, their intelligence and their capacity for complex behaviour. These are things that make us human”
[121] The Darwinian Timetable for Human History The hominid heritage (25 million years). The great ape heritage (15 million years). The African ape heritage (19 million years). The “Last common Ancestors” heritage (7 million years). The australopithecus heritage (5 million years). The Homo heritage (2.5 million years). The Homo erectus grade heritage (1.8 million years). The 1000-gram brain heritage (300 000 years). The anatomical modern human (Homo sapiens) heritage (140 000 years)
[122] The principal conclusion to be drawn from the evidence and arguments presented here is that the evolution of species bearing the attributes we think of as “human” is not inevitable in the sense of being the preordained outcome of a teleological evolutionary process, but that it is the expected product of the “right” ecological and evolutionary conditions. Hominids and humans have evolved because, given the basic processes and mechanisms of biology and evolution, their adaptative characteristics “solve” the problems posed by certain phylogenetic and ecological circumstances. The purpose of this book has been to try and shown the fit between the pattern of hominid evolution and those circumstances in the context of the principles of evolutionary ecology.
[123] “Neither the special characteristics of humans, nor the limiting nature of the fossil record, must be allowed to limit the question we seek to ask about the evolution of our own species […] We should recognize that we are a unique, but also that we are just another unique species”
[124] The term hominid (which is derived from the family name, the Hominidea) should be used to denote all populations and species with which we share an evolutionary history exclusive of any other living primate. In this text early hominid” refers to hominids before the evolution of Homo sapiens. The term human should be reserved solely for members of the only living subspecies of hominid, Homo sapiens sapiens, or for characteristics found among living populations […] the term “man” used in a biological sense, refers to all members of the subspecies H. s. sapiens and not just to the male sex, it should also be avoid on the same grounds.
[125] “human origins and ultimately human nature are not philosophical questions, but technical ones”
[126] “humans are descended from apes, but have made themselves angels”
[127] “not surprisingly many of these have been selected as the feature that made humans the way they are. Man the tool-maker, man the hunter, woman the gather, Homo economicus, Homo hierarchicus, Homo politicus, and Homo loquans”
[128] “the whole point of this book is to show that being a human and being a hominid are by no means the same thing ”
[129] “the triangle of relationships between sociality [a], intelligence[b] and ecology[c]. c energetic cost and benefits of group living a selection for greater cognitive abilities b ability to exploit complex food types c costs of brain growth b ability to maintain social relationships a social solutions to ecological problems c”
[130] But for better o for worse, it is as legitimate to use the adjective ‘human’ in the inclusive sense of being related to us by descent as in the exclusive one of applying to creatures with the qualities that distinguish us from the rest of the living world. Most anthropologists today would lean toward the inclusive use of the term, to embrace the australopithecines as well as later fossil members of the human group: but it is important to remember that (depending on the characteristics that you regard as being typically human) it might be difficult to view some of these members of the human family as Human in a functional sense
[131] I suppose they must be considered ex officio humans, as members of the genus Homo. But that´s not to say that we would intuitively recognize them as such if we wee to encounter a group of them while out for a stroll on the savanna. In the absence of an agreed functional definition to tell us what is human and what is not, everyone has to make up on her own mind; what is certain, however, is that even the latest Acheuleans were far from fully human as we are today
[132] for by this time the notion of humans as essentially cultural beings had gained broad ascendancy
[133] The power of a persuasive paradigm should never be underestimated, and during the 1960s the concepts of the New Evolutionary Synthesis combined with notions of culture as the basic human attribute to produce a new perspective –even dogma- on the human evolutionary process as a whole […] from anthropology that took the concept that humanity was defined by the possession of culture rather that by any particular physical attribute
[134] “brain size (an attribute which appeals powerfully both it is so easy to quantify and because it somehow expresses the essence of humanness) ”
[135] “language, a uniquely efficient form of communication, has often been looked at as key to brain increase and the improvement of human intelligence communication evolutionary time”
[136] “there´s no doubt in my mind that with the invention of sophisticated bifacially flaked tools such as handaxes we are witnessing yet another major cognitive leap on the part of mankind”
[137] Una vez más debo hacer una advertencia. Los conceptos de los demás autores, que se han citado, incluyen tanto a la mujer como al hombre. Sólo se utiliza el sustantivo hombre por las convenciones del idioma y porque este trabajo tiene como un fin aclarar los términos y dado que el adjetivo humano no puede sustituir al sustantivo hombre, pero éste si incluir a ambos géneros, se opto por el último.
[138] “It is our brains (or our minds) that make us truly human”
[139] “Humans have lateralized brains that are the end product of millions of years of evolution […] That is, enhanced visuospatial skills have increased breeding opportunities in males, whereas processing social vocalizations may have increased the survivorship of famales´ offspring”
[140] “Thus social intelligence per se probably was not the prime mover of human brain evolution. Unlike the brains of other primates, human brains do language”
[141] “Human reproductive phenomena always take place within a cultural context in which their meaning are cultural constructed. Given our unique propensity for employing the body´s rich potential as a symbolic medium”
[142] “Among the unique attributes of modern humans are symbolic culture manifested in language, ritual and art, and a sexual division of labor, with distribution and exchange underwritten by ritual taboos and myth”
[143] No todos son paleoantropólogos, sin embargo sus textos si trabajan el tema de la evolución humana. La diversidad de títulos no muestra que ahora se escriba más, sino que es más sencillo encontrar los textos con una búsqueda en una tienda virtual.
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Dedicatoria
Para María, Hani y Chelsea con amor.
Agradecimiento
La realización de este libro ha sido gracias a la beca posdoctoral en el extranjero proporcionada por CONACYT. No. Propuesta 208019.
Los caminos de la paleoantropología.
Autor:
Juan Carlos Zavala Olalde.
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