Textos para la traducción especializada para la carrera de Derecho (página 2)

TEXT – 5: POSITIVE THINKING

Julius Caesar had long wished to conquer the British. He sailed to the British Isles, quietly unloaded his troops and gave the order to burn the ships. He then called his men together and said: "Now it is to win or perish. We have no other options". With that single order, he guaranteed the success of his campaign. He knew that people who have no other alternative, or will accept no other, always win.

People willing to go the extra mile with faith and willpower on their side will always manage to make the apparently impossible into reality. Some people lead a charmed life and everything always seems to work fine to them. A closer look at their lives will reveal as many problems, setbacks and failures as anyone else, but the difference is that they deal with it differently, with the never give up attitude, instead of worrying.

Worry is the most useless of all human mental processes. As humorist William Rogers once observed: "Worry is like a rocking chair. It keeps us busy, but takes no where". Worry does not solve anything, it only places an additional pressure on us and like a person, it is a companion who won’t stay around for long if we don’t spend time with it. The point is not that problems should be ignored but ought not to be internalized to the extent of getting paralyzed.

Successful thinking helps us realize we all face adversity in our lives and know that we cannot always control events, but reaction to it is controllable. In any adversity we must find the good out of the bad things that happen to us, that is, to practice some optimistic thinking, to see more in something than there really is. Most of the times obstacles are the things we see when we take our eyes off our goal. It is this positive mental attitude that will enable us to view setbacks as a learning experience, and not "succumb to problems". Keep your face to the sun and the shadows will fall behind. Optimistic thinking will allow us to realize the potential that lies within us and gets us on the journey to success. In the end, success or failure is caused more by mental attitude, than by mental capabilities.

TEXT – 6: DEFENCES

A person accused of a crime is, of course, entitled fully to defend himself. In the majority of the cases the defence takes the form of a general denial, which is included in the plea, "not guilty". An accused person may also testify and call evidence of his own if he so wishes; or he may choose to remain silent, relying on the presumption of innocence and the possibility that the case will not be proved beyond a reasonable doubt. There are, however, some specific defences.

Insanity

If at the time the defendant committed the alleged offence he was insane, he is entitled to an acquittal. An accused person who is insane is not, however, set free. He will be remanded (sent back into custody) to a hospital for the criminally insane until the authorities are convinced that he has recovered his sanity and is not longer a threat to society.

Self-defence

The Criminal Code allows the use of force when a person finds it necessary to defend himself, his property, or anyone under his protection. The degree of force to be used, however, is only that which appears ¨reasonably necessary under the circumstances¨. Unreasonably and unnecessary force, even when used in self-defence, may render the user guilty of assault or an offence of a more serious nature.

Double jeopardy

It is often said that a person cannot be tried twice for the same offence, and generally speaking, this is true, unless, of course, the first trial was defective and the Court of Appeals directs a retrial. With that exception, however, if a person has been tried and been either convicted or acquitted, he cannot be tried again for that offence.

Drunkenness

Drunkenness itself is not a defence to a criminal charge. In rare cases, the amount of drinking may have so much impaired the mind of the accused as to have rendered him temporarily insane. Insanity, when proved is a defence. If the offence is one that calls for proof of specific criminal intent, and it is shown that the drunken state of the accused rendered him incapable of such intent, drunkenness may constitute a defence.

TEXT – 7: INDEPENDENCE AND IMPARTIALITY ARE BETTER ASSURED

Judicial bodies always have to insulate themselves from political influences; they must be impartial and independent, no matter the personal cost. This objective is easier to meet at an international tribunal. Foreign magistrates are permanently away from the residence of the tribunal, and are materially immune to that kind of influence. They don’t even have to make much of an effort, except for keeping a safe distance from those people in the Legal Department that represent the administration in cases before the tribunal. There are other reasons why independence is easier for the member of an international administrative tribunal. For one, the members have already lived a great part of their lives and are quite established in their home countries. They do not earn a living from their salary as a judge, and, even if the criteria for stipendium are generous, they are but an infinitely small part of each judge’s income. Their work at the tribunal is only a small part of their overall activities, and when judges may indeed very much like to be the members of this tribunals, they do not need to be a part of them. Furthermore, they know that their position is, by its nature, very temporary. In sum, being a judge in these tribunals contributes to only a fraction of time, money and prestige of any given member. As such, tribunal members depend less on their positions, and yet, because of them, are made more visible and, therefore, responsible. All of these factors together almost assure the tribunal’s independence and impartiality.

TEXT – 8: CREATION VS. APPLICATION OF THE LAW: TRUTH AND EVIDENCE

There will always be debate as to whether or not judges merely apply law or actually create it. We share the idea that judges create law, since they recognize and determine the facts. It is clear that if a legal solution to a case must be found, that will depend upon the facts to which the law is applied. It is enough that the judge determines whether the situation ¨A¨ or ¨B¨ to make the judicial solution change from ¨A¨ to ¨B¨. The solution changes depending on how the court recognizes or determines the facts. This is the way it works in living law, in any philosophy or legal method, in any legal system and in any country. As POPPER states, we admit that absolute truths do not exist, not even in physical and natural sciences, let alone in the law. There is one ¨truth¨ of the administration, another of the parties in the proceedings, and another of the courts at each successive level. When trials and hearings are finished, will the ¨truth¨ be the one of the last judgment? In reality, nobody knows what the truth of a case is. It will always be temporal, or rather, a mere supposition that is always subject to a potential falsity in evidence or otherwise. This fact does not give us a reason to criticize the uncertainty of a subjective court’s judgment. Being imperfect does not deprive that finding of its validity as a supposition or hypothesis, nor the possibility of finding a final solution.

TEXT – 9: OFFICERS AND MAGISTRATES.

When an officer has to pass judgment on a case, the situation is the same, mutatis mutandis. This legal principle rules the administrative proceeding, which means that the office acts on its own initiative, not only on the parties´ initiative. The burden of proof is on the administration, and if the evidence already submitted to the dossier does not satisfy the officer, he will produce reports, decisions, expert’s opinions, etc., as long as the may deem necessary in order to reach the material truth.

The work of the lawyers in gathering facts help officers in their own determination of the facts. However, not always can the officer enter a decision solely in the lawyer’s facts presented as evidence: further evidence might be requested. There are various material reasons that may lead to that. For example, in ordinary proceedings, the facts could have changed with the passing of time. In protection proceeding, due to their expedited nature, evidence that would have been necessary in an ordinary proceeding might have been omitted, but has to be produced nevertheless. It is true that, more than once, tribunals have wondered whether ¨to let the mantle of the judge drop and assume the gown of lawyers¨. It is also true that in each successive court hearing, the court becomes more and more reluctant to carry out new investigations or determinations.

This produces, however, a dilemma: Ruling without sufficient evidence, or carrying out at the court’s own initiative the production of evidence. Although the first option may have apparent support in procedural law, it is not supported by the rules of constitutional due process.

TEXT – 10: GROWING INTERNATIONAL REGULATION

The human rights system is, at present, clearly supranational, and that there are some sectors of the economy that are virtually internationalized, such as the financial sector. There are, in addition, other sectors in which international regulation is increasing, such as in the protection of natural resources.

It is likely that there will be still further development in international regulation. As a matter of fact, nowadays, there are even some activities being carried out in international waters, which are beyond every country’s jurisdiction. Reasons for increased international collaboration are, for example, floating casinos beyond the four-mile limit of United States, jurisdictional waters, and radios installed out of the maritime jurisdiction of England to avoid national controls.

At the same time, perhaps a more pressing issue is that fishing in international waters has become cheaper with ¨factory ships¨, which perform the whole manufacturing process in international waters, beyond any State’s jurisdiction. These ships do not always respect international agreements on limits of marine resources. There are also factory ships that, under ¨convenience flags¨, manufacture other products on the high seas, which puts them out reach of tax and labor rules. This helps to lower costs, along with the fact that these ships do not even need to enter port: Other ships approach to take away the production, to change staff, etc.

In brief, all this increasing activity in international waters may reach sufficient economic importance so that nations may want to regulate it, control it, and force the payment of taxes, as well. It is reasonable to expect a slow but progressive advance in international regulation, to which all countries will be subjected.

TEXT – 11: EVIDENCE IN COURT

There is a stage prior to evidence production. In Argentine Procedural Law, it is called ¨anticipated evidence remedies¨. Under such a scenario, the litigant resorts to justice before prosecuting and requests the production of certain evidence pursuant to the provisions of the code. A very common situation is when the future litigant asks for the seizure of the case file, including documentation, books, etc. In that case, the court must decide, at its own discretion, whether the reasons for the seizure are well founded, or whether the seizure will alter the reality or veracity of the dossier. Further evidence remedies exist that can be leveraged prior to the claim. This is a repetitive situation for the prosecutor: He finds the file, goes through the matter, shapes the claim, and realizes that with the evidence he has, the judge is likely to deny e provisional remedy. Thus, he needs more evidence. Because this process may waste time, it might be better to produce evidence privately and, depending on how convincing it is, analyze whether or not it would be possible to obtain a provisional remedy.

Another evidentiary possibility is to resort to the criminal justice system to investigate the conduct of administrative officers or individuals related to the public administration via concessions or privileges. Given the high requirements of Criminal Law to find guilt, facts can be accredited through that process even though they do no justify conviction. They are, however, able to prove certain facts that will, then, be useful as the foundation for the claim presented at another court.

TEXT – 12: THE LEGAL POLICY BEHIND THE DECISION AND ITS EXPLANATION.

Courts adopt various legal policies to address similar problems. As an example, when a court decides to annul an act of the administration (due to some reason that caused it to find the act illegitimate in the first place) it has two different, seemingly opposing ways to go about doing so. One way is for the court to base its decision on some ¨vice¨, if you will, of the administration that, when acted upon, does not draw the attention of the general public. Another way is for the court to leverage the multiplicity of the breaches of the legal order by the administration. The first method seems to suggest a court that is more secure, in that it can annul an act for a seemingly small reason without causing political friction. The second method seems to suggest a court that feels it must fully demonstrate to society that there was no other alternative than annul the administration’s decision, that it was imperfect to the point of no salvation.

There are also those cases in which the court does not consider that it has to put an end to an act, but neither does it want to appear as agreeing politically with a decision of the Executive or any other branch. Under such circumstances, the court can act in several ways. It can consider the issue non-justiciable and not even start considering the action; it can declare itself incompetent; it can determine that administrative remedies were not yet exhausted; or it may use any other procedural excuses or arguments that would disallow it from entering into the substance of a question. In this way, the court can communicate that it may not find a particular action invalid, but it does not want to pay the political cost of saying so expressly. It prefers therefore to keep out of the debate by using the many procedural subterfuges that exist to that end from time immemorial.

TEXT – 13: BEING INFORMED ON A DAILY BASIS

Another possibility is reading legal newspapers every day, something that, of course, a lawyer should do. The problem is, though, once again, that we have a lot of information, and either time does not allow for a de3ep reading or the subject might not be of interest to us. Obviously, we need to resort to an initial thematic selection due to the great number of subjects, e.g. are we interested in civil or criminal law, commercial or administrative law, etc. within those subjects, there are other subjects that may attract our attention and others that may not, but once that selection is made, a priori there are still too many judgments to read in order to be updated. As when we are searching for something in particular, here, too, we face the problem of juggling with time and quality of selection.

Daily reading has other difficulties. One is the need to keep a distance from the object, in that information gathered should not be taken for specific data of the current law, but rather as a legal hypothesis. This is because quick daily reading means reading with inadequate reflection and it does no good to overwhelm ourselves with information that is destined to change. What is more, daily reading does not even prepare us sufficiently for those changes.

Finally, we have to average out the number of hours we spent on reflecting with the time we use in receiving information. The suggested technique for reading judgments prevent us from relying on the existing answers and, instead, contributes to creativity and to keeping our minds alert. Indeed, the technique prepares us for changes to come, and it engenders reflection rather than amassing information.

TEXT – 14: WOLF PACKS

The stories flicker on the screen with numbing repetition. In Chicago, two boys – one 12, other 13 – were sentenced to 15 years in prison after dropping a 5-year-old out of a 14-story window because he didn’t want to steal candy for them. In New York, two teenage boys and a young woman locked up a 13-year-old girl, repeatedly raped and tortured her, then hung her up in a closet by the heels before she managed to escape. In a Los Angeles school, 6 students were wounded, and a fifth-grade teacher and three other students were killed during a shootout between rival gangs.

We hear these tales so often now that we are beginning to accept them as a permanent way of life. Instead of demanding an end to this social madness, we seem anesthetized. So, who paid much attention earlier this month when the justice Department reported that the number of juvenile murderers tripled between 1993 and 2003 even though the teenage population remains stable in size and that juvenile murderers now use guns in 8 out of 10 cases? It barely made the front page.

But there are strong reasons to pay more attention. Evidence grows that we are growing a new class of "super predators" who may create far more mayhem in the next few years. And since the juvenile population will grow considerably by the year 2010, there is a serious danger not to be underestimated that kids will soon be roaming urban neighborhoods like "teenage wolf packs".

It is tempting to believe that more prisons are the best answer. After all, we have dramatically increased the prison population in the 80’s and the 90’s, and the crime rate, according to experts has dropped across the nation. Better police work, more certain and quicker legal procedures and tougher sentencing all seem to have helped, it is argued. However, as some of the experts have stated, the economic costs are enormous and, ultimately, it will probably fail. Of course, violent criminals must be deprived of their freedom, but we must redouble our search for additional solutions.

Dr. Felton Earls, a child psychiatrist at Harvard University, directs a vast study in Chicago neighbourhoods, trying to learn what prompts deviant behaviour in kids. He is optimistic that social science will have reliable answers within the next five years. "We beat tuberculosis at the turn of the 19th century, and I believe we can do the same here", he says. His probable solution: more radical civic engagement in local neighbourhoods. Other social thinkers, as William Julius Wilson, are convinced we could make progress if today’s teenagers had as many job opportunities as those of generations ago. After a long investigation for his new book, "All God’s Children", Fox Butterfield believes a big part of the problem is that violent kids have bad role models. More than a half of the adolescents in jail have a father, mother, or other relative who has been there first. Experimental programs in early childhood intervention suggest such patterns can be broken down on time. Some others believe that stronger moral instruction would play a fundamental role. The summarization of these investigations brings about the conclusion that we will have to adopt a variety of these strategies. What we cannot do is accept this madness as a permanent part of our lives.

TEXT – 15: INFANTICIDE

Infanticide is the practice of killing offsprings at birth or soon after. As a method of population control, or control of family size, it has been employed on every continent and in every type of culture from the primitive to the highly civilized. It was performed in a large scale in ancient Greece and Rome and in imperial China as a normal cultural practice. In Europe, it was widespread until the later half of the 19th century. Not one factor explains infanticide in all of these societies. It is believed it has served to eliminate motherless infants, multiple births, and illegitimate and deformed children; besides, to space or help in the planning of children, to regulate future adult sex ratios, and to adjust family and community size to food resources, subsistence patterns of the society, or nomadic conditions.

In most societies, the greater number of infants killed were females, with the effect not only of removing the immediate burden of a child with little or no economic value, but also of reducing the number of potential childbearers. In classical Greece, upper-class families rarely raised more than one daughter, which resulted in severe distortions of adult sex ratios. A few exceptions to the preference for female infanticide have been reported, such as the custom of the Rendille camel herders in Kenya of limiting heirs to the herd by killing all males born on certain days, and those born after the eldest brother who are then circumcised. Infanticide was sometimes preferred to abortion because it allowed sex selection and did not endanger the life of the mother.

In many cultures, infanticide was an approved means of protecting older children in the family from starvation, particularly when an older sibling had not been weaned. The infant often was not considered fully human at birth and was not accepted into the social group until it was named or went through a ceremonial initiation. The time for such initiation varied from a few days to several years after birth. Killing before that might carry no stigma. Attitudes toward infanticide have ranged from open to approval to that embodied in the 16th century criminal code of Emperor Charles V. Under this code, all who were guilty of infanticide (usually the mother) were to be buried alive, impaled, or drowned. The concealment of pregnancy was a crime because it was considered to be a sign of the intention to murder the child. This change in moral outlook is largely attributed to the spread of Christianity, not only with its encouragement of large families and commandment against killing, but also with its belief that an anabaptized child could not enter heaven and it would be condemned by infanticide to spend eternity in limbo.

There is some dispute as to the frequency with which the above penalties were imposed. It was usually married women who were charged with the crime, but few convictions are recorded and sentences were light. The extent of the practice of infanticide cannot be known precisely, but there are estimates that it was the most frequent crime in Europe from the Middle Ages to about the 1800s. In England, as late as 1878, perhaps 6 percent of all violent deaths could be classified as infanticide motivated by poverty and illegitimacy. One method of infanticide was overlaying or smothering an infant who shared a bed with its parents; this was so common that in some European countries sharing a bed with a small child was forbidden.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, in Europe there was a marked increase of illegitimate births. These infants were very often abandoned in streets, alleys, ditches or church doorways. When foundling hospitals were established in Paris, London and other European capitals in an effort to save the lives of those abandoned children, they were quickly overwhelmed by the numbers and could not find sufficient wet nurses to feed them. Provisions for anonymous delivery of infants by means of revolving boxes at doors brought more than 164,000 infants to French hospices in 1833. The mortality among the children in those foundling hospitals, in the parish workhouses, or in the baby farms was so high, up to 80 percent, as to be called legalized infanticide.

"Killer nurses" or "angel makers" were terms used for the wet nurses who ran baby farms and used lethal doses of opiates to quiet their charges.

Although a few geographically remote societies are known to continue the practice of infanticide, it has generally been abandoned as a means of population control, and it is considered a crime by national governments all over the world. It is the question of euthanasia for defective children that has emerged as the current ethical and legal infanticide issue.

TEXT-16: PRISONERS OF WAR

International law has been reluctant to define prisoners of war. The reason is that there is danger that any definition unless so comprehensive as to be inaccurate or useless, might exclude some who should be accorded the rights and privileges of prisoners of war.

In 1950, The Geneva Prisoners of War Convention of 1929, embodied the latest authoritative decisions on the subject and provided that this convention should apply to the following captured persons: a) members of the armed forces to a belligerent nation; b) militia and partisan corps under certain circumstances; c) inhabitants of a territory which has not been occupied and on the approach of the enemy take up arms to resist the invading troops; d) individuals who follow the armed forces without directly belonging to them.

World War II showed the need of including other classes of persons such as medical personnel and chaplains. Finally, many authorities came to the conclusion that, in the absence of specific international agreement dealing with the subject, enemy civilians, interned by a belligerent nation, also should be classed as prisoners of war.

TEXT 17:DUE PROCESS OF LAW

It is a principle which protects the life, liberty and property against unreasonable or arbitrary laws and procedures by the government. In England it applies to judicial and administrative procedures only, not to the content of the laws.

Due Process seems to be the equivalent of law of the land or due course of law as these phrases are used in English and American law.

Due Process implies fair process and fair laws. Fair procedure usually means that a person shall receive notice and charges shall have a hearing or trial, shall have an opportunity to see and examine those who complain against him and to be rendered an impartial decision based on the merits of the case. But judicial trial is not always necessary, and summary proceedings are considered reasonable.

TEXT-18: BUSSINESS GOES GREEN

Many cities around the world today are heavily polluted. Careless manufacturing processes employed by some industries and lack of consumer demand for environmentally safe products have contributed to the pollution problem. One result is that millions of tons of glass, paper, plastic and metal containers are produced, and these are difficult to dispose of.

However, today, more and more consumers are choosing "green" and demanding that the products they buy are safe for the environment. Before they buy a product, they ask questions like these: "Will this hairspray damage the ozone layer?", "Is the packaging biodegradable?", "Will it break down in a trash dump?", "Can this metal container be recycled or can it only be used once?".

A recent survey showed that two out of five adults now consider the environmental safety of a product before they buy it. This means that companies must now change the way they make and sell their products to make sure that they are "green", that is, friendly to the environment.

Only a few years ago, it was impossible to find green products in supermarkets, but now there are hundreds. Some supermarket products carry labels to show that the product is green. Some companies have made the manufacturing of clean and safe products their main selling point and emphasize it in their advertising.

The concern for a safer and cleaner environment is making companies rethink how the do business. No longer will the public accept the old attitude of "Buy it, use it, throw it away, and forget it".

The public pressure is on, and gradually business is cleaning up its act.

Glosario

A

Abide: Soportar, aguantar, tolerar

Absurdities: Cosas absurdas

Abuse ones rights: Abusar de los derechos de otros

Acceptance: Aceptación, admisión, aprobación

Accepted: Aceptado

Accuse: acusar

Achieve: Lograr

Acknowledge: Agradecer

Adage: Adagio

Add: Adicionar

Added: Adicionado

Adduce: Aducir

Adecuacy: Suficiencia

Adhering: Adherir

Administrative law: Leyes administrativas

Admissible: Aceptable, admisible

Advantage: Ventaja

Advertise: Anunciar, divulgar, propagar

Aforementioned: Anteriormente mencionado

Afraid: Temeroso

Aggrieve: Ofensa, humillación

Ago: Hace

Agree: Esta de acuerdo

Agreeing: Estando de acuerdo

Agreement: Acuerdo

Akin: Parecido a, semejante a, análoga

Alike: Similar

Alive: Vivo

Allow: Permitir

Alone: Solo

Ambassador: Embajador

Amount: Cantidad

Anxiety: ansiedad

Applied: Aplicado

Applying: Aplicando

Approach: Consideración, criterio, punto de vista

Arrive. Llegar

Ascertain: Asegurar

Aside: A parte de

Assert: Afirmar

Assertion: Declaraciòn, afirmación, aseveración

Assessment: Valoración, juicio

Assume: Suponer

At least: Al menos

Attain: Lograr Ganar

Attend: Asistir

Attendance: Asistencia

Attorney: Abogado

Available: Disponible

Avoid: Evitar

Aware: Consciente, despierto

B

Background: Antecedente

Barrier: Barrera

Become: Convertir

Beforehand: De ante mano

Behave: Comportarse

Behind: Detrás

Behind: Detrás

Bestow: Otorgar

Beyond: Màs allá

Branch: sucursal, empresa, agencia , sección o división administrativa

Breach: Violación, incumplimiento de acuerdo o contrato, ruptura, brecha, violar, incumplir la ley

Briefly: Brevemente

Burden: Quemado

C

Careless: Descuidados

Carry out: Llevar a cabo

Case file: Caso archivado

Challenge: Reto

Challenging: Retador

Change: Cambio

Choose: Seleccionar

Claim: Aclamar

Claimant: Demandante

Clause: Cláusula

Clerking: Trabajar como dependiente

Coherently: Coherentemente

Colleages: Colegas

Common –law rules: Regla de las leyes comunes

Complacency: Complacencia

Comply: Cumplir

Compulsory: Obligatorio

Concern: Concernir

Concieve: Concebir

Confidence: Confianza

Conflicting theories: Teorías conflictivas

Conjecturing: Hacer conjetura

Constituent power: Poder constituyente

Consumer: Consumidor

Container: Contenedor

Costumary: Acostumbrado, usual, habitual

Counterpoint: Contraparte

Couple: Pareja

Court of Justice: Corte de justicia

Cover: Cubrir

Creativity: Creatividad

Criscrossing: Cruzar de un lado a otro, ir de aquí para allá

Criticize: Criticar

D

Damage: Dañar

Deal with: Estar relacionado con

Deducing: Deducir

Deductive: Deductivo

Deem: Juzgar, considerar

Deep: Profundo

Defencelessness: Desamparo

Define: Definir

Degree: Grado

Delay: Retrazo

Deliver: Repartir, distribuir, pronunciar discurso, libertar

Demand: Exigencia

Deny: Negar

Departure: Punto de partida

Depict: Representar.

Desirable: Deseable

Develop: Desarrollar

Diligence: Diligencia

Disallow: Anular o rechazar un dictamen o informe

Disappointment: Desilusión, desanimo

Disbursement: Desembolso

Discredited: Desacreditado, desprestigiado

Discretionary power: Poder de discrecional

Dismiss: Destituir, desechar,

Dispose: Desposeer

Distorted: Distorsionado

Docket: Etiqueta, ròtulo, marbete

Dossier: Expediente, historial

Doubt: Duda pregunta

Doze off: Quedarse dormido con sueño ligero

Dreadful: Fatal, horrible

Dregrading: Degradante

Drop: Te

E

Easily: Fácilmente

Easy: fácil

Echelon: Categoría, grado

Effectiveness: Efectividad

Employment: Empleo

Enable: Permitir

Encounter: Encontrar

Encourage: Estimular

End up: Terminar, culminar

Endure: Durar

Enforced: Inevitable, obligado forzoso

Enforcement: Imposición, exigencia

Engender: Engendrar, causar, producir

Enough: Suficiente

Enrich: Enriquecer

Enriching: Enriquecer, enriquecedor

Enterprises: Empresas

Entire: Completo

Entirely: Completamente

Entitled: Titulado

Environment: Ambiente

Environmentally: Ambientalmente

Epochs: Épocas

Execute: Ejecutar, ajusticiar

Exemplified: Ejemplificado

Exhausted: Agotado, cansado

Expectation: Expectativa

Expires: Expirar

Exponentially: Exponencialmente

Expound: Exponer, explicar

F

Factual: Real, objetivo

Factually: Realmente, objetivamente

Fail: Fracasar, dejar de

Failure: Fracaso

Fair: Justo

Fairness: Justeza

Faith: Fe

Fall upon: Caer

Fare: Precio, tarifa

Fill: Llenar

Find out: Buscar, encontrar

Fishing: Pesca

Floating: Flotante

Flow: Flujo

Follow: Seguir

Follower: Seguidor

Forbid: Prohibir

Foregoing: Anterior, precedente, previo

Foresee: Predecir

Former: Anterior

Frown: Fruncir, fruncido

Fulfill: Cumplimentar

Fulfillment: Cumplimiento

Full-time appointment: Cita a tiempo completo

Full-time work: Trabajo a tiempo completo

Fully: Completamente

Further: Posterior

G

Gathered: Recolectado

Gathering: Coleccionar, recolectar

Gift: Obsequio

Goal: Objetivo, propósito

Gown: Miembros

Grant. Consentir, permitir, admitir

Greed: Avaricia, codicia de dinero, ambición de poder

Greedily: Vorazmente, àvidamente, avaricia

Growing international public order: El creciente orden público internacional

Guaranty: Garantizar

Guess: Adivinar, conjeturar, creer , pensar, sospechar

Guiding principles: principios que guían

Guilt: Culpa

Guilty: Culpable

H

Handle: Manejar

Harshly: Duramente

Health: Salud

Healthy: Saludable

Heavily polluted: Muy contaminada

Hence: De ahí que

Hierarchy: Jerarquía

High sea: Alta mar

High: Superior

Hold: Contener

Hypothesizing: Hacer hipótesis

I

Ignorance: Ignorancia

Ignore: Ignorar

Immemorial: Inmemorial o inmemorable

Impartiality: Imparcilidad

Improve: Mejorar

Increase: Incrementar

Incur: Incurrir

Indisputable: Innegable, indiscutible

Infrigement: Infracción, quebrantamiento, violación, incumplimiento, usurpación

Infringe: Infringir, incumplir, quebrantar la ley o un acuerdo, violar usurpar un derecho

Install: Instalar

Instead of: En vez de

Internacional arbitration tribunal: Tribunales de árbitros internacionales

Invoke: Invocar

Involve: Incluidos

Irrepressible: Activo, enérgico, animoso, irreprimible, irrefrenable

Isolate: Aislar

Issues: Ediciones

Itself: Por si mismo

J

Judge: Juez

Judgement: Juicio

Judicial principles: Principios judiciales

Judiciary: Poder judicial, judicatura

Juggling. Hacer trampa, fraude, impostor, hacer malabares con

Jurisdiction: Juridisciòn

Jurisprudence: Jurisprudencia

Justice: Justicia

Justify: Justificar

K

Keep in mind: Tener en cuenta

Keep one `s word: Mantener la palabra

Knowledge: Conocimiento

L

Lack: Carencia

Latter: Posterior

Law work: Trabajo sobre leyes

Law: Ley

Lawsuit: Pleito, litigio

Lawyer: Abogado

Layer: Capa

Leads: Conlleva

Leave: Abandonar

Left undecided: Dejar sin decidir

Left: Quedar

Legal case: Caso legal

Legal field: Campo legal

Legal system: Sistema legal

Leisure: Ocio, tiempo libre, despreocupado

Lend. Prestar

Leverage: Influencia, fuerza

Liable: Expuesto, sujeto, propenso

Lies: Mentir

Likely: Probable, posible, probablemente

Link: Vinculada, unida, ligada

Litigant: Litigante

Lose: Pérdida

Losing: Perder

M

Magistrate: Magistrado

Mankind: Humanidad

May be: Puede ser, quizás

Means: Significar

Meanwhile: Mientras tanto

Merely: Simplemente

Mind sharp: Mente aguda

Mislead: Equivocar, engañar

Mistake: error

Multilayered: Multi estratificado

N

Narrowly: Estrechamente

National case law: Leyes para los casos nacionales

Neverthless: No obstante

Nonetheless: No obstante

Normative: Normativo

Notary: Notario, solicitor

Notwithstanding: A pesar de

Nuances: Sutileza, matiz, tono, característica

O

Oath: Juramento, insulto, blasfemia, taco

Obviuosly: Obviamente

Odd: Raro

Otherwise: De lo contrario

Outcropping: Surgir, aparecer, manifestarse, afloramiento

Outright: Claro, inequívoco, directo

Outside: Afuera

Overarching principles: Principios exigentes

Overcome: Vencer

Overcome: Vencer

Overlaod: Sobre cargar

Overwhelm: Abrumador

P

Payment: Pago

Pending: A la espera, pendiente, sin decidir

Percieve: Percibir

Perhaps: Quizás

Permutation: Permutación, permuta

Pieces: Piezas

Plead: Abogar por, defender

Point out: Señalar, puntualizar

Port. Puerto

Practitioner: Practicante

Preclude: Excluir, descartar, eliminar

Press: Apretar, presionar

Prevail: Prevalecer

Price: Precio

Prior: Anterior

Privacy: Privacidad

Privilege: Priviligio

Procedural laws: Leyes judiciales

Procedural: Procesal

Procedure: Procedimiento

Proceed: prodecer

Proceeding: Procedimiento, medida, tramite, acta

Prompt answer: Respuesta con antelación

Proof: Prueba

Proportionaly: Proporcionalmente

Prosecuting: Procesar, demandar, acusar

Prosecuting: Procesar, demandar, acusar

Provide: Brindar, suministrar, facilitar, dar

Prudence: Prudencia

Prudently: Prudentemente

Public and Private Law: Leyes públicas y privadas

Purpose: Propósito, señalar

Purposely: A propósito

Persuade: Convencer, persuadir

Q

Quick: Rápido

R

Rank: Rango

Reach: Alcanzar

Rearrange: Reorganizar

Reason: Razón

Reasonability: Veracidad, sentido, común

Reasonable: Razonable

Reasonableness: Racionabilidad

Receive: Recibir

Recourse: Recurso, medio

Refute: Refutar

Regard: Considerar, tomar en consideración, tomar en cuenta

Regardeless. A pesar de todo, sin tener en cuenta

Regardless: A pesar de todo

Reluctant: Poco dispuesto, poco entusiasta

Remain: Permanecer

Remark: Resaltar, observar, notar

Reminded: Recordar

Render: Dejar, volver, hacer, rendir, proporcionar

Renewal: Renovación

Reply: Respuesta

Request: Solicitud, petición., suplica

Requirement: Requisito

Resign: Renunciar, dimitir

Resolve: Decidir

Resort: Recurrir , acudir a alguien o a un sitio

Resounding: Resonate

Resources: Recursos

Retirement: Retiro

Root: Raìz

Rule: Gobernar

Ruling: Dirigir

Run: Carrera

S

Safe: Seguro

Safeguard: Salva vida

Schema: Esquema

Scope: Campo, espacio, alcance, ámbito

Search: Buscar, inclinarse, tener tendencia, encaminarse

Seem: Parecer

Seemingly: Aparentemente, supuestamente, al parecer

Seizure: Incautación

Sell: Venta

Sense: Sentido

Sentence: Sentencia, fallo, condena

Settled: Establecer

Shadow: Sombra

Shaping: Dar forma

Share: Compartir

Sign: Firmar

Simple: Muestra

Simply: Simplemente

Single: Único

Slight: Ligero

Slightly: ligeramente

Slotted cases: Casos programados

Sole: Única

Solely: Únicamente

Solve: Resolver

Sort: Clase, tipo

Source: Fuente

Sovereign: Soberano

Spend: Pasar

Stability: Estabilidad

Staff. Grupo, claustro

Stance: Posición, postura, punto de vista

Starting point: Punto de partida

State: Plantear

Step: Paso

Strength: Fuerza, potencia

Strict: Estricto

Submit: Someter

Subterfuge: Subterfugio, evasiva

Subtitle: Subtílulo

Successfully: Exitosamente

Successive learning experience: Experiencia de aprendizaje exitosa

Successive: Exitoso

Successively: Exitosamente

Sufficiency: Suficiencia

Sugestión: Sugerencia

Supporters: Ayudantes

Supposedly: Supuestamente

Supreme court: Corte suprema

Surname: Apellido

Surprising: Sorprendido

Sustain: Mantener, sustentar, soportar, aceptar

T

Take side: Tomar parte

Tamper: Interferir, interceptar, entrometerse y modificar, sobornar un jurado un testigo

Tax.: Impuesto

Teach: Enseñar, impartir

Tend: Tender

Tenets: Principio, creencia, dogma, precepto

Tensely: Tensamente

Theory: Teoría

Thereafter: Poco después

Thereby: Por eso, de ese modo, por esa razón

Therefore: Por eso

Thought: Pensamiento

Threaten: Amenazar

Treaty: Tratado

Threshold: Umbral, antesala, punto de partida

Throughout: A través

Thus: Así

Timetable: Trabajo de mesa

Title: Título

Toward: Hacia

Training: Entrenamiento

Treaties: Tratados

Treatment: Tratamiento

Trial: Jurado

Truth: Verdad

Try: Tratar, intentar

U

Unable: Incapaz

Uncertainty: Inseguridad

Unconstitutuinality: Inconstitucionalidad

Undoubtedly: Indudablemente

Unfair: Injusto

Unless: Al menos que

Unthinkable: Inimaginable, inconcebible

Unwaranted: Sin garantía

Update: Actualizado

Uphold: Mantener, sostener, defender

Useful: Útil

Useless: Inútil

V

Vagueness: Vaguedad, imprecisión, indecisión, indeterminación

Values: Valores

Veracity: Veracidad

View: Punto de vista

Voice: Voz

W

Warn: Avisar, advertir, aconsejar, prevenir

Warrant: Garantiza

Weight: Peso

Whole: Total

Wholly: Completo, total

Win: Ganar

Wind Up: Estimular

Wish: Anhelo. deseo

Witnesses: Testigos

Wonder: Preguntar

Worthwhile: Valer la pena

Wrong: Equivocado

Wrongful: Equivacado

Wrongly: Equivocadamente

Datos de los autores

Lic. Ana Velia Domínguez León.

Título Académico: Licenciada en Lengua Inglesa con Segunda Lengua Extranjera (Francés).

Centro de trabajo: Universidad de Granma.

Edad: 26 años.

Lic. Orestes Peillón Verdecia.

Título Académico: Licenciado en Educación en la especialidad de Idioma Inglés.

Centro de trabajo: Universidad de Granma.

Edad: 43 años.

Lic. María Isabel Leyva Reyes.

Título Académico: Licenciada en Educación en la especialidad de Inglés.

Centro de trabajo: Universidad de Granma.

Edad: 39 años.

Categoría: Educación.